Welcome to Paper 3: The Origins and Development of the Cold War (1941-1950)

Hello! This chapter is incredibly important for your A Level Paper 3, which focuses on historical interpretations. While you need to know the facts (What happened?), the real goal is to understand why historians disagree about these facts (Who was to blame for the Cold War?).

We will break down the crucial nine years (1941–1950) where former allies turned into bitter enemies, and then tackle the different ways historians view this transformation. Don't worry if this seems tricky at first—we’ll use simple steps and clear definitions!

Section 1: Tensions in the Wartime Alliance (1941–1945)

The Cold War didn't suddenly start in 1945; the relationship between the USSR (led by Stalin) and the USA/UK (led by Roosevelt and Churchill) was always strained, even when fighting Hitler.

1.1 Deep-Rooted Ideological Differences

The most fundamental tension was ideology. They believed in completely different ways of running society:

  • West (USA/UK): Capitalism and Democracy (Free markets, individual liberty, multi-party elections).
  • East (USSR): Communism and Totalitarianism (State control of economy, single-party rule, focus on the collective).

Analogy: Imagine two people forced to cooperate on a project, one who believes in total freedom (Capitalism) and one who believes in total control (Communism). The project might finish (WWII ends), but they will immediately clash over how to divide the profits (post-war Europe).

1.2 Wartime Disputes

These immediate tensions built up during World War II:

  • The Second Front: Stalin repeatedly urged the West to open a second front in Western Europe to relieve pressure on the USSR (which was bearing the brunt of the German attack). Churchill and Roosevelt delayed until 1944 (D-Day). Stalin felt intentionally betrayed, believing the West wanted the Soviets to be weakened.
  • Poland: Both sides deeply distrusted each other over the fate of Poland. Stalin wanted a friendly, Soviet-dominated government (the Lublin Poles). The West wanted free elections and a democratic government (the London Poles). This became a symbol of betrayal for both sides.
  • The Atomic Bomb: The USA kept the development of the Manhattan Project (the atomic bomb) secret from Stalin. When Truman mentioned it vaguely at Potsdam, Stalin already knew via spies, confirming his suspicion that the West was fundamentally untrustworthy.

1.3 Peace-Making Conferences (Yalta & Potsdam)

These conferences attempted to settle the post-war world but revealed deep rifts:

Yalta Conference (February 1945):

  • Agreement was reached on dividing Germany into four zones (US, UK, French, Soviet).
  • Stalin promised to join the war against Japan (he did, shortly before the US dropped the bombs).
  • The Declaration on Liberated Europe promised free elections—a promise Stalin immediately began breaking in Poland.

Potsdam Conference (July–August 1945):

  • Roosevelt had died, and Churchill was replaced mid-conference by Attlee. New leaders (Truman and Attlee) were less willing to compromise than Roosevelt.
  • Reparations became a huge issue. Stalin wanted massive payments; Truman wanted German economic revival to prevent future conflict.
  • Germany’s Fate: The Allies agreed Germany would be treated as one economic unit, but the USSR soon began stripping its zone of assets, leading to the economic division.
Key Takeaway (Section 1): The alliance was a temporary marriage of convenience. Fundamental ideological differences, mutual suspicion over military strategy, and irreconcilable goals for Eastern Europe meant conflict was almost inevitable once the common enemy (Hitler) was defeated.

Section 2: The Erection of the Iron Curtain (1945–1947)

2.1 Soviet Consolidation of Eastern Europe

After 1945, Stalin secured a buffer zone of friendly states, believing this was necessary for Soviet security after two devastating invasions via Eastern Europe.

  • Salami Tactics: This was the Soviet process of slowly eliminating opposition parties in Eastern European nations, piece by piece, until only a Communist government remained.
  • Satellite States: By 1948, nations like Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia had become Satellite States—nominally independent but controlled by Moscow.

Did you know? The term "Iron Curtain" wasn't invented by Churchill, but he made it famous. It was first used publicly by former Nazi Propaganda Minister Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk!

2.2 Key Speeches and Doctrinal Statements

In 1946, the diplomatic language turned aggressive, signaling the shift from uneasy peace to open hostility.

The Long Telegram (February 1946):

  • Written by US diplomat George Kennan.
  • It argued that the USSR saw the West as an eternal enemy and was highly sensitive to opposition.
  • Conclusion: The USSR was not open to negotiation, only to force. This paved the way for the US policy of Containment.

The Iron Curtain Speech (March 1946):

  • Delivered by Winston Churchill in Fulton, Missouri (with Truman present).
  • He stated that an "Iron Curtain" had descended across Europe, dividing the free West from the totalitarian East.
  • This speech dramatically increased anti-Soviet sentiment in the US and is often seen as the symbolic start of the Cold War.
Quick Review: By 1947, Stalin had his sphere of influence (satellite states) and the West had defined the enemy (Communism). The war was now officially ideological.

Section 3: The Formal Division of Europe (1947–1949)

1947 was the year the US committed fully to fighting Soviet influence through two monumental policies: political/military commitment and economic aid.

3.1 The Truman Doctrine (March 1947)

The trigger was Britain telling the US it could no longer afford to support anti-communist governments in Greece and Turkey.

  • What it was: A declaration that the US would provide political, military, and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces (i.e., Communism).
  • Significance: It committed the US to a policy of Containment—stopping the spread of Communism wherever it might appear. This officially ended US isolationism.
  • Impact on tensions: Stalin viewed this as a direct declaration of war against Communism worldwide.

3.2 The Marshall Plan (ERP) (June 1947)

Known officially as the European Recovery Program, this was the economic twin of the Truman Doctrine.

  • What it was: Massive financial aid offered by the US to all European nations (including the USSR) to help rebuild after the war. The goal was to combat "hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos."
  • The Logic: US leaders believed that desperate, poor countries were vulnerable to Communist takeover (as seen in Italy and France). Rebuilding prosperity was the best defense.
  • Soviet Reaction: Stalin forbade the satellite states from accepting the aid, calling it "Dollar Diplomacy"—an American attempt to buy influence and dominate Europe economically.

3.3 Soviet Counter-Measures

Stalin responded to the Marshall Plan by tightening his grip on the East:

  • Cominform (1947): The Communist Information Bureau. This centralized and coordinated the activities of Communist parties in the Soviet bloc, ensuring loyalty to Moscow.
  • Comecon (1949): The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. This was the Soviet economic alternative to the Marshall Plan, designed to integrate the economies of Eastern Europe under Soviet guidance.
Memory Aid: Think of the 1947 US Policies as a pair: Truman Doctrine (Talk/Threat, Political) and Marshall Plan (Money, Economic).

Section 4: The Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948–1949)

The first major crisis of the Cold War centered on Germany, specifically the city of Berlin, which lay deep inside the Soviet zone.

4.1 The Road to Blockade

  • Divided Germany: By 1948, the US, UK, and France merged their zones into Trizonia.
  • Currency Reform: In June 1948, the West introduced a new currency (the Deutschmark) into Trizonia and West Berlin. This was a clear sign the West was preparing to establish a separate West German state, violating the Potsdam agreement to treat Germany as a single unit.

4.2 The Blockade and the Airlift

  • The Blockade: In response to the currency reform, Stalin cut off all road, rail, and canal links into West Berlin. He hoped to starve the Western Allies out, forcing them to abandon the city.
  • The Airlift: Truman faced a dilemma: either abandon West Berlin (a huge ideological defeat) or fight his way in (starting WWII again). He chose the third option: the Berlin Airlift. For almost a year, Western planes flew continuous missions, delivering vital supplies (food, coal, medicine) to 2 million West Berliners.
  • Stalin’s Retreat: In May 1949, realizing the blockade had failed and was making the USSR look cruel, Stalin lifted the blockade.

4.3 Consequences: The Permanent Division

The Berlin Crisis finalized the division of Europe:

  • German Division (1949): West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany - FRG) and East Germany (German Democratic Republic - GDR) were formally established.
  • NATO (1949): The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was formed, a military alliance pledging mutual defense between the USA, Canada, and Western European nations. This was the first time the US entered a formal peacetime military alliance.
  • Warsaw Pact (1955): The Soviet equivalent of NATO, solidifying the division into two armed camps.
Key Takeaway (Section 4): The Berlin Blockade was the first true military confrontation, leading directly to the permanent institutionalization of the Cold War structure (divided Germany, NATO/Warsaw Pact system).

Section 5: Historiography: Who Was To Blame? (Paper 3 Focus)

The overarching question for this topic is: 'Who was to blame for the Cold War?' Your A Level answers must reflect an understanding of these different historical interpretations.

5.1 The Traditional Approach (The USSR is to Blame)

This was the dominant view in the US and West during the 1950s and 60s.

  • Interpretation: The Cold War was an aggressive act forced upon the US by the USSR.
  • Argument: Stalin was a paranoid dictator driven by expansionist Communist ideology (like Hitler). His immediate post-war actions—the refusal of elections in Poland, the Salami Tactics, and the Berlin Blockade—prove he sought world domination.
  • Key Historians: George Kennan, Arthur Schlesinger Jr.

5.2 The Revisionist Approach (The USA is to Blame)

This approach emerged during the 1960s, heavily influenced by US actions in the Vietnam War.

  • Interpretation: The US, driven by economic necessity (dollar diplomacy), aggressively sought to assert global dominance, forcing the USSR to react defensively.
  • Argument: The US aimed for an 'Open Door' world economy (free markets), which was fundamentally hostile to Soviet state control. The Marshall Plan wasn't humanitarian; it was economic imperialism. The dropping of the A-bomb and Truman's sudden hard line were used as bargaining chips to intimidate Stalin.
  • Key Historians: William Appleman Williams, Gabriel Kolko.

5.3 The Post-Revisionist Approach (Misunderstanding and Systemic Security)

This approach, popular since the 1970s, acts as a balance, avoiding blame.

  • Interpretation: The Cold War was not caused by evil intentions, but by a security dilemma and a series of mutual misunderstandings.
  • Argument: Both superpowers prioritized their own national security. The US secured West Europe; the USSR secured East Europe. Both perceived the other’s defensive actions as aggressive threats, leading to an uncontrollable spiral of escalation. Ideology was a factor, but security was the driving force.
  • Key Historians: John Lewis Gaddis.

5.4 The 'New' Cold War History

Since the collapse of the USSR, new archives have opened, complicating the debate.

  • Key Findings: New evidence shows that while Stalin was indeed brutally ruthless and highly suspicious, he was often cautious and preoccupied with Soviet security first, not immediate world conquest. It also confirms that Truman’s policies were often based on incomplete information or domestic political needs.
  • Conclusion: Historians now blend elements of all previous schools, focusing on the personalities of leaders (Stalin's paranoia, Truman's assertiveness) and the specific political and economic realities of the immediate post-war period.

Quick Review Box: Early Cold War Timeline (1945-1950)

Here are the five critical turning points that cemented the East-West divide:

  1. 1945 (Potsdam): Failure of cooperation on Germany and reparations.
  2. 1946 (Fulton, US): Churchill’s Iron Curtain Speech formalizes the ideological divide.
  3. 1947 (Europe): The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan commit the US to containment.
  4. 1948–49 (Berlin): The Berlin Blockade confirms military hostility and leads to NATO.
  5. 1949 (Germany): Formal division into FRG (West) and GDR (East).